The Discovery and History of Vitamins

The history of vitamins is a relatively recent chapter in the long study of human nutrition. The very term vitamin did not appear until the second decade of the twentieth century, yet the conditions that led to its recognition—scurvy, beriberi, pellagra, rickets—had impacted human health for centuries. Observations such as James Lind’s eighteenth-century demonstration that citrus fruits prevented scurvy, or the late-nineteenth-century discovery by Dutch investigators that unpolished rice protected against beriberi, provided early evidence that something beyond proteins, fats, and carbohydrates was essential for life. These findings culminated in Casimir Funk’s proposal in 1912 of the word “vitamine,” denoting a class of vital substances present in small quantities in food but indispensable to health. The emergence of vitamins as a scientific concept thus combined clinical observation, experimental nutrition, and public-health crises, and quickly intersected with the development of concentrated food sources and manufactured supplements that would come to define the early health-food industry.

Early Clues: Citrus, Rice, and Deficiency Diseases

One of the first clear demonstrations that food could prevent disease came in 1747, when Scottish naval surgeon James Lind carried out one of history’s earliest controlled clinical trials. Aboard a British ship, he divided twelve scorbutic sailors into groups and gave them different treatments—only those receiving citrus fruits recovered promptly, revealing that something in lemons and oranges was essential for health. To this day British sailors are referred to as "limeys".

In the 1890s, Dutch physician Christiaan Eijkman observed that chickens fed polished white rice developed nerve paralysis similar to beriberi, while those fed unpolished rice remained healthy. His colleague Gerrit Grijns deduced that a protective nutrient in the rice husk had been removed—the insight that paved the way to discovering vitamin B1 (thiamine).

The Coining of “Vitamine”

By the early 1900s, scientists were beginning to suspect that human beings needed more than the three basic macronutrients—fats, carbohydrates, and proteins—to maintain health. In 1906, British biochemist Frederick Gowland Hopkins proposed the existence of “accessory food factors” vital for growth. A few years later, in 1912, Polish biochemist Casimir Funk coined the term vitamine—meaning “vital amine”—and published The Vitamines in 1914, popularizing the idea. Since not all such substances were amines, British biochemist Jack Drummond simplified the spelling to vitamin in 1920, which became the standard.

Expanding the Vitamin Alphabet

With the concept defined, researchers began identifying individual vitamins:

• In 1913, Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis discovered the fat-soluble growth factor later named vitamin A, and distinguished it from water-soluble B vitamins.
• By the 1930s, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated vitamin C (ascorbic acid), confirmed almost simultaneously by Charles Glen King. In 1933, Tadeus Reichstein developed a scalable fermentation-based method (the Reichstein process) to synthesize vitamin C. In 1934, Hoffmann-La Roche introduced Redoxon—the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin in history, and crucially, the first to be sold over-the-counter.
• That same year, Merck released Cebion, another synthetic vitamin-C product in tablets and powders. While an important early competitor, Cebion followed Roche’s Redoxon, which holds the distinction of being the pioneer.
• In 1923, Harry Steenbock discovered that ultraviolet treatment of foods generated vitamin D, leading to fortified milk and products like Viosterol from Parke-Davis.
• Also in the early 1920s Herbert Evans and Katherine Scott Bishop isolated vitamin E in Berkeley, California.
• In 1929, Henrik Dam identified a clotting-associated fat-soluble factor, later named vitamin K.

Deficiency Crises and Public Health

Deficiency diseases were not academic curiosities—they caused suffering on a wide scale:

• Pellagra caused a trio of symptoms—dermatitis (skin rashes), diarrhea, and dementia—and could be fatal. Joseph Goldberger proved it was diet-related; the missing nutrient was later identified as niacin (vitamin B3) in 1937.
• Rickets left children with soft, weak bones that bent under their weight (bowed legs and other deformities). It is caused by vitamin D deficiency; fortifying milk with D in the 1930s nearly eliminated it in many industrial countries.
• Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) produced bleeding gums, loose teeth, poor wound healing, and exhaustion—long infamous among sailors who spent months at sea devoid of fresh produce.
• Beriberi (vitamin B1 deficiency) brought severe weakness, nerve damage, and sometimes heart failure, especially where polished rice dominated diets.

By the 1940s, the lessons from these crises translated into policy: the United States mandated enrichment of flour and bread (adding thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, and iron), and the first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were published in 1941.

Early “Super-Foods” as Natural Vitamin Sources

Before synthetic vitamins were widely available, people turned to naturally nutrient-dense foods:

• Brewer’s yeast and yeast extracts (e.g., Marmite in 1902, Vegemite in 1923) as B-vitamin sources.
• Cod-liver oil, rich in vitamins A and D, prescribed for rickets and night blindness long before fortified milk and synthetic concentrates.
• Wheat germ and germ oils, highlighted after vitamin E was discovered in 1922.
• Citrus fruits, the best natural source of vitamin C until Redoxon (1934) made synthetic ascorbic acid broadly available.
• Malted tonics like Ovaltine (1904), marketed for “strength” and vitality.

Natural vs. Synthetic Vitamins: A Contested Debate

As chemists perfected synthetic versions, debate grew over equivalence and bioavailability:

• Vitamin E: Natural d-alpha-tocopherol (one stereoisomer) vs. synthetic dl-alpha-tocopherol (a racemic mix). The natural form tends to be retained and utilized more efficiently.
• Vitamin C: Chemically identical in natural and synthetic forms, but natural sources arrive with bioflavonoids and plant co-factors that may aid absorption and function.
• B vitamins: Foods often contain phosphorylated, enzyme-ready forms (e.g., thiamine pyrophosphate), while supplements typically use salt forms (e.g., thiamine hydrochloride) that the body must convert.
• Vitamin B12: Common synthetic cyanocobalamin must convert to active forms such as methylcobalamin or adenosylcobalamin; some prefer supplementing directly with methylcobalamin.

These differences energized “whole-food” advocates, while mainstream nutrition emphasized the reliability and measurability of synthetics. The discussion still shapes how people choose supplements today.

Industrial Production and the Rise of Vitamin Pills

In the 1930s, vitamins moved from foods into bottles:

• Redoxon (1934, Hoffmann-La Roche) was the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin of any kind, sold OTC.
• Cebion (1934, Merck) followed quickly as another synthetic vitamin-C brand.
• Viosterol (Parke-Davis), a UV-derived vitamin-D concentrate, became a staple anti-rickets remedy.
• In 1940, One-A-Day multivitamin pills by Miles Laboratories popularized the idea of a daily “nutritional insurance” pill.

By the early 1940s, nearly a quarter of Americans were taking vitamin pills.

Pioneering Vitamin Companies of the 1920s–1940s

As synthetic vitamins and fortified foods took off, a first wave of dedicated vitamin companies emerged—each with a distinct niche and go-to market:

• Jamieson (Canada, 1922) — Among the earliest branded vitamin makers, Jamieson grew by supplying pharmacies with a broad line of vitamins and cod-liver oil in glass bottles.
• KAL (USA, 1932) — Founded in Southern California (by Chester Weldon), KAL is often credited with early multivitamin and calcium products and with moving quickly from powders to tablets, selling through health-food stores.
• Thompson (USA, 1932) — One of America’s oldest vitamin brands, later acquired by Nutraceutical; it competed on affordability and breadth.
• Schiff / Weider Nutrition (USA, 1936) — One of the first sports-nutrition-oriented firms, competing on branding and retail reach.
• Solgar (USA, 1947) — Founded by two pharmacists and a physician in Manhattan, Solgar staked out the premium, science-forward niche with its distinctive amber-glass packaging.
• Shaklee (USA, 1956; formula roots 1915) — Dr. Forrest Shaklee formulated one of the earliest multivitamin-mineral supplements, Vitalized Minerals, in 1915, decades before founding the Shaklee Corporation in 1956. Shaklee pioneered the direct-sales model, distributing vitamins through independent consultants.

Royal Lee and the Whole-Food Supplement Movement

In 1929, Wisconsin dentist and nutrition pioneer Royal Lee founded Standard Process (originally the Vitamin Products Company) to produce whole-food concentrates rather than synthetic isolates. His first product, Catalyn® (1929), blended defatted wheat germ, carrots, nutritional yeast, rice bran, alfalfa juice, and animal glandulars (adrenal, liver, kidney). Phosfood® Liquid followed in 1931, and between 1935–1939 he launched Drenamin, Organic Minerals, Lactic Acid Yeast, Soy Bean Lecithin, and Wheat Germ Oil Perles.

Unlike most consumer brands, Lee marketed his products through practitioners’ offices—particularly chiropractors and nutrition-minded physicians—rather than pharmacies or drugstores. He also produced extensive educational materials, including Vitamin News, to arm practitioners with arguments for whole-food nutrition over synthetic isolates. His outspoken criticism of synthetic vitamins and processed foods drew the scrutiny of regulators, culminating in a 1962 misbranding conviction. Yet his whole-food philosophy, practitioner-only model, and flagship products gave Standard Process a distinctive role in shaping the supplement field—one that continues to this day.

Regulation and Pushback

The 1906 Pure Food and Drugs Act created the first federal protections against misbranded or adulterated products, requiring labels to state ingredients accurately. Though vitamins were not yet discovered, the Act laid the foundation for regulating them—and herbal products—once they emerged.

The 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act expanded FDA authority, requiring proof of safety before drugs could be marketed and broadening definitions of “food” and “drug.” Under this law, vitamins sold as general nutrition could be treated as foods, but if marketed with disease-curing claims, they could be regulated as drugs. The FDA, working with the FTC, thus became the arbiter of what claims vitamin and herbal companies could make—a contested role that still shapes the industry.

Popular Advocates & Influential Books (1930s–1960s)

These authors and clinicians shaped public enthusiasm for vitamins:

• Adelle Davis — Chemist and bestselling author of Let’s Cook It Right (1947), Let’s Eat Right to Keep Fit (1954), and more, urging vitamin-rich diets and supplements.
• Gayelord Hauser — Celebrity nutritionist; Diet Does It (1944), Look Younger, Live Longer (1950), popularized “super foods” like wheat germ and brewer’s yeast.
• Victor Lindlahr — Radio nutritionist, You Are What You Eat (1942), brought vitamin talk to millions.
• Weston A. Price — Nutrition and Physical Degeneration (1939) emphasized nutrient-dense traditional diets high in fat-soluble vitamins.
• Jethro Kloss — Back to Eden (1939) blended herbalism with vitamin advocacy.
• Roger J. Williams — Discovered pantothenic acid (vitamin B5); author of Biochemical Individuality (1956), advanced the idea of personalized supplementation, including for alcoholism.
• Evan & Wilfrid Shute — Advocated vitamin E therapeutically; Your Heart and Vitamin E (1956).
• Abram Hoffer & Humphry Osmond — Orthomolecular psychiatrists; high-dose niacin for schizophrenia; Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry (1962).
• Linus Pauling — Nobel laureate, Vitamin C and the Common Cold (1970) brought megadose C to public attention.
• Frederick R. Klenner — Clinical papers (1949, 1953) on high-dose vitamin C for infections.
• Carlton Fredericks — Known as “America’s Foremost Nutritionist.” His books (Eat, Live and Be Merry, 1951) and nationally syndicated radio show Design for Living (beginning in 1957, following earlier radio work in the 1940s) spotlighted vitamins and nutrition advice, reaching mass audiences at a time when mainstream medicine remained skeptical.

Conclusion

From citrus aboard sailing ships to vitamin pills on store shelves, the vitamin story weaves together observation, lab science, public health, commerce, and popular culture. By mid-century, deficiency diseases had receded, but enthusiasm for vitamins—nurtured by early companies, advocates, and authors—was only accelerating. The voices of Lee, Davis, Hauser, Fredericks, Williams, and Pauling ensured that vitamins were not just a medical discovery but a cultural movement.

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